Finals Reviewer:

This is the reviewer for The Final Exam on Friday. A 100 item exam (scantron)  will be given.

Additional Requirements: FOR SUBMISSION ON FRIDAY:

Per group: Submit photomicrographs of at least 5 structures listed under each system.

1. Integumentary System:

• The skin is composed of two layers: the epidermis and the dermis. Underneath these layers lies the hypodermis. The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium. The dermis is composed of a papillary layer and a reticular layer. The reticular layer of the dermis is made up of dense irregular connective tissue. The hypodermis is a layer of loose connective tissue.
• The epidermis is divided into five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.
• The stratum basale contains the dividing cells. This layer is also called the stratum germinativum.
• The stratum spinosum consists of a layer several cells deep. The cells have pointy or spiny processes on them. The cells in the stratum granulosum contain keratohyaline granules.
• The stratum lucidum is present only in thick skin.
• The stratum corneum is the outermost layer. The cells in this layer are essentially bags of keratin. They contain no nuclei or organelles.
• Macrophages are mononuclear phagocytes. Many tissues have resident (fixed) macrophages. Fixed macrophages are given a unique name, depending on the tissue that they are located in. Kupffer cells are the hepatic macrophages. Histiocytes are macrophages seen in connective tissue. Dust cells are alveolar macrophage found in the respiratory tract. Langerhans cells are macrophages seen in the skin. Microglia are the central nervous system macrophages.
• Langerhans cells, keratinocytes, melanocytes, and Merkel cells are all found in the epidermis. The Langerhans cell is a phagocyte. The keratinocyte is the most abundant cell in the epidermis. The melanocyte produces melanin, which is responsible for skin pigmentation. The Merkel cell is a mechanoreceptor.
• The lunula is the half moon shaped white area on a nail. The anatomical term for the cuticle is the eponychium. The matrix is the region of the nails where there are dividing cells and nail growth. The nail plate rests on the nail bed. The nail root is the proximal portion of the nail that is underneath skin.
• The ceruminous glands of the ear are apocrine sweat glands.
• There are several different sensory receptors in the skin. The most abundant sensory receptor are the free nerve endings. Free nerve endings respond to pain and temperature. Ruffini's corpuscles respond to continuous pressure. Pacinian corpuscles respond to vibration and rapidly changing pressure. Krause's end bulbs are a receptor for fine touch which are located in mucous membranes and the tongue. Meissner's corpuscles are also a receptor for fine touch but they are located in the dermis.
• Hair is present over most of the body. It is not found on the palms of the hand, soles of the feet, urogenital openings, and lips.
• Mesenchyme is embryonic connective tissue. It is an undifferentiated tissue found in the embryo. Mucous connective tissue is a type of embryonic connective tissue; it is a subset of mesenchyme. Wharton's jelly is mucous connective tissue. Loose irregular connective tissue is areolar tissue. Dense irregular connective tissue is seen in the dermis. Dense regular connective tissue comprises tendons and ligaments.
• Psammoma bodies are collections of calcium. It is derived from the Greek word "psammos", which means sand.
• Corpora arenacea refers to the calcifications seen in the pineal gland. Corpora arenacea is nicknamed "brain sand".
• Hassall's corpuscles are the ring like structures found in the thymus.
• The spherical structures seen in some prostatic alveoli are called prostatic concretions.
• Pacinian corpuscles are pressure receptors in the skin.
• Ruffini endings, pacinian corpuscles, meissner's corpuscles, and merkel cells are all encapsulated sensory receptors. Free nerve endings are not encapsulated.

2.  Respiratory System

• The respiratory tract is made of branching structures, much like the branches of a tree. The trachea branches into two bronchi which branch into smaller bronchi. The bronchi ultimately branch into smaller bronchioles. Bronchioles are distinguished from bronchi in that they do not have cartilage and submucosal glands. The terminal bronchioles are the last part of the airway in which gas exchange does not occur. Terminal bronchioles lead to the respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles are the first section of the respiratory tree that gas exchange can occur. The alveoli duct is analogous to a thoroughfare with many cul-du-sacs branching off of it. At the end of the alveoli duct is an alveoli sac. An alveoli sac is a cluster of alveoli, much like a cluster of grapes. Alveoli are individual sacs where gas exchange occurs.
• The conducting portion of the airway is where air is moved, warmed and moistened. The nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi are all part of the conducting portion of the airway.
• The respiratory portion of the airway is where gas exchange occurs. The respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli are all part of the respiratory portion.
• Respiratory mucosa is composed of ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells. Respiratory mucosa contains several cell types: ciliated cells, goblet cells, basal cells, and brush cells. Respiratory mucosa is located lining the respiratory segment of the nasal cavity. It lines the conchae and the paranasal sinuses.
• The trachea is lined by pseudostratified squamous epithelium. Epithelium lines body cavities and surfaces. Pseudostratified squamous epithelium is "pseudostratified" because it is only one cell layer thick, yet it appears to be stratified. In reality, every cell touches the basement membrane.
• The Clara cell is found in the terminal bronchioles. The type I pneumocyte is a squamous epithelial cell. It covers most of the surface of the alveoli. The type II pneumocyte is also called a septal cell. The type II pneumocyte secretes surfactant. The dust cell is also called the alveolar phagocyte. Brush cells are occasionally, but rarely, seen in the alveolar epithelium.
• Macrophages are mononuclear phagocytes. Many tissues have resident (fixed) macrophages. Fixed macrophages are given a unique name, depending on the tissue that they are located in. Kupffer cells are the hepatic macrophages. Histiocytes are macrophages seen in connective tissue. Dust cells are alveolar macrophages found in the respiratory tract. Langerhans cells are macrophages seen in the skin. Microglia are the central nervous system macrophages.
• Olfactory mucosa lines the roof and portions of the walls of the nasal cavity. It contains several cell types: basal cells, brush cells, olfactory cells and sustentacular cells.
• The epiglottis is part of the larynx. It is composed of elastic cartilage.
• The larynx is composed of several cartilages. The thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, arytenoid cartilages, corniculate cartilages and cuneiform cartilages are all composed of hyaline cartilage. The epiglottis is elastic cartilage. There is no fibrocartilage in the larynx.
• Basal cells are located in the basal lamina. Brush cells are involved with general sensation of the olfactory mucosa. Olfactory cells are bipolar neurons that are the receptors for smell. Sustentacular cells are supporting cells. Sustentacular cells are most numerous cell type in the olfactory epithelium.
• The vestibule is lined by stratified squamous epithelium.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

• The layers of the GI tract are: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa or adventitia.
• The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract. The mucosa consists of a lining epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosae. Gut associated lymphatic tissue (GALT) is found in the mucosa and sometimes extends into the submucosa.
• The submucosa is comprised of dense irregular connective tissue. Within the submucosa are lymphatic vessels and nerve plexuses. Meissner's plexus is located in the submucosa.
• The muscularis externa consists of thick layers of smooth muscle. The myenteric plexus of Auerbach is located in the muscularis externa.
• The outer layer of the GI tract is either an adventitia or serosa. The serosa consists of only a single layer of epithelial cells (mesothelium) and underlying connective tissue. The adventitia is the outer layer of the GI tract when it is abutting another organ the posterior abdominal wall.
• The small intestine is the primary site for absorption of nutrients.
• There are several features of the small intestine.
• The lymphatic capillary within a villus of the small intestine is a lacteal.
• Crypts of Lieberkuhn are the intestinal glands.
• The plica circulares is a projection with a core of submucosa. The plica circulares is also called the valve of Kerckring.
• Microvilli that are seen on the epithelial cells in the small intestine form the brush border or striated border.
• Villi are finger like projections of mucosa seen in the small intestine.
• The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract. It consists of epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa.
• The submucosa is connective tissue. Within it are lymphatic vessels and nerve plexuses. Meissner's plexus is located in the submucosa.
• The muscularis externa consists of thick layers of smooth muscle. It contains Auerbach's plexus.
• The outer layer of the GI tract is either an adventitia or serosa. The serosa consists of only a single layer of epithelial cells and underlying connective tissue. The adventitia is the outer layer of the GI tract when it is abutting another organ the posterior abdominal wall.
• The masticatory mucosa is located on the hard palate and gingiva. Lining mucosa is found on the underside of the tongue, lips, cheek, and soft palate.
• The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract. It consists of epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa.
• The submucosa is connective tissue. Within it are lymphatic vessels and nerve plexuses. Meissner's plexus is located in the submucosa.
• The muscularis externa consists of thick layers of smooth muscle. It contains Auerbach's plexus.
• The outer layer of the GI tract is either an adventitia or serosa. The serosa consists of only a single layer of epithelial cells and underlying connective tissue. The adventitia is the outer layer of the GI tract when it is abutting another organ the posterior abdominal wall.
• The surface layer of masticatory mucosa is stratified squamous epithelium. (Remember, epithelium lines body cavities and covers body surfaces). The stratified squamous epithelium is keratinized. However, some regions of the masticatory mucosa are covered with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and parakeratinized epithelium. Parakeratinized epithelium is similar to keratinized epithelium, except that in parakeratinized epithelium cell nuclei are present in the stratum corneum.
• The layers of the masticatory epithelium are similar to the layers of the epidermis. The stratum lucidum is not present in the masticatory epithelium.
• The epidermis is divided into five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum. The stratum basale contains the dividing cells. This layer is also called the stratum germinativum. The stratum spinosum consists of a layer several cells deep. The cells have pointy or spiny processes on them. The cells in the stratum granulosum contain keratohyaline granules. The stratum lucidum is present only in thick skin. The stratum corneum is the outermost layer. The cells in this layer are essentially bags of keratin. They contain no nuclei or organelles.
• The papillae on the tongue are located anteriorly to the sulcus terminalis. The tongue contains primarily three types of papillae: filiform papillae, circumvallate papillae and fungiform papillae. The filiform papillae are the smallest and most abundant. Filiform papillae are the only papillae on the tongue which do not contain taste buds. Circumvallate papillae large papillae arranged in a "V" shape. Fungiform papillae are mushroom shaped. Foliate papillae are not well developed in man and are seen on the edges of the tongue. Taste buds are found on cicumvallate, fungiform, and foliate papillae.
• Chief cells secrete pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is the precursor for pepsin. Parietal cells are also called oxyntic cells. They secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor. Mucous neck cells contain mucinogen granules.
• The lining of the upper esophagus is stratified squamous epithelium. Epithelium lines body cavities and surfaces. Stratified squamous epithelium is "stratified" because it is more than one cell layer thick. "Squamous" refers to the fact that the surface cells of the layer are flat.
• The modifications of the muscularis externa seen on the large intestine are called teniae coli.
• The lymphatic capillary within a villus of the small intestine is a lacteal.
• Crypts of Lieberkuhn are the intestinal glands.
• The plicae circulares is a projection with a core of submucosa. The plicae circulares is also called the valve of Kerckring.
• Microvilli that are seen on the epithelial cells in the small intestine form the brush 
• border or striated border.
• Villi are finger like projections of mucosa seen in the small intestine.
• Brunner's glands are glands in the submucosa of the small intestine.
• Goblet cells are most numerous in the large intestine

3. Accessory Organs for Digestion:

• The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine organ.
• The endocrine portion of the pancreas is housed in the islets of Langerhans. Within the islets, there are several cell types. The alpha cells secrete glucagon. The beta cells secrete insulin. The delta cells secrete somatostain. The gamma cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
• The acini is the exocrine portion of the pancreas.
• Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses are divertiuclae of the mucosa of the gallbladder. The small bile ducts which connec between the cystic duct and liver are the ducts of Luschka The duct of Wirsung is the pancreatic duct. The opening of the pancreatic duct into the duodenum is at the ampulla of Vater. The valves which regulates the flow of bile into the small intestine is the sphincter of Oddi.
• Hepatocytes are the liver cells. They are arranged to form a liver lobule, which is the functional unit of the liver. The liver lobule is a hexagonal shaped structure. At the angles of the liver lobule are portal triads. The portal triad is composed of a branch of the hepatic artery, portal vein, and bile duct. In the middle of the liver lobule is a central vein. Hepatic sinusoids run between the hepatocytes.
• The liver performs many, many functions. Estimates range at over 500 different functions for the liver.
• Bile production occurs in the liver. The liver receives blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein. The blood in the hepatic portal vein is the "first stop" directly from the intestines, giving the liver the prime opportunity to detoxify substances. The liver synthesizes proteins such as albumin, fibrinogen, and prothrombin. Fibrinogen (Factor I) and prothrombin (Factor II) are clotting factors involved in clotting. The liver also makes Factors VII, IX, and X.
• Cholecystokinin is produced by the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract.
• The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine organ.
• The endocrine portion of the pancreas is housed in the islets of Langerhans. Within the islets, there are several cell types. The alpha cells secrete glucagon. The beta cells secrete insulin. The delta cells secrete somatostain. The gamma cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
• The acini is the exocrine portion of the pancreas.
• Glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver. Glycogen is stored in the liver. The liver stores of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.
• Once bile is produced by the liver, it is stored in the gallbladder.
• Urinary System:
• The kidney can be divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. A kidney lobe consists of a medullary pyramid, its overlying cortex, and the associated renal column. The renal columns are the tissue in between the pyramids. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. A region where a portion of the medulla project into the renal cortex are referred to as medullary ray.
• There are approximately one million (1,000,000) nephrons in each kidney. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.
• The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. The nephron can be divided into the glomerulus and uriniferous tubule. The capillary tuft of the nephron is referred to as the glomerulus. Bowman's capsule is a double layered cap surrounding the glomerulus. This is the first portion of the uriniferous tubule. The glomerulus and Bowman's capsule make up the renal corpuscle. Another term for the renal corpuscle is Malpighian corpuscle.
• The afferent arteriole branches off the interlobular artery. The afferent arteriole supplies blood to the glomerulus. The glomerulus is a capillary tuft. The glomerular capillaries converge to form the efferent arteriole. The peritubular capillaries is a second capillary network which arise after the efferent arteriole. They surround the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, and distal tubule. Vasa recta are the "straight vessels" which arise from some of the efferent arterioles.
• Bowman's capsule leads to the proximal convoluted tubule. The proximal convoluted tubule leads to the loop of Henle. This then leads to the distal convoluted tubule. The distal convoluted tubule then leads to the collecting duct.
• Large collecting tubules near the apex of the pyramid are the ducts of Bellini. The ducts of Bellini are also called a papillary ducts.
• The inner layer of Bowman's capsule is the visceral layer. It consists of cells called podocytes. The outer layer of Bowman's capsule is the parietal layer. Pedicels are the foot processes on the podocytes. The juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin. The macula densa are specialized cells in the distal convoluted tubule that are sensitive to sodium. The juxtaglomerular cells and macula densa make up the juxtaglomerular apparatus
• The lining of the bladder is transitional epithelium. Epithelium lines body cavities and surfaces. There are domed shaped cells on the apical surface.

4. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Brunner's glands are found in the duodenum.
• Cilia is the hair like surface modification seen on some epithelia. Cilia are made of microtubules.
• Hormones can have a variety of structures. Hormones which are proteins include insulin and prolactin. Peptide chains are short chains of amino acids. Examples of hormones which are peptide chains are antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin. Steroid hormones are cholesterol derivatives. Steroid hormones include testosterone and estradiol. Norepinephrine and epinephrine are catecholamines.
• Keratinization is seen in the epidermis. Cells in the stratum corneum are essentially just bags of keratin.
• Leydig cells produce testosterone. These are also called "interstitial cells" or "interstitial cells of Leydig". Sertoli cells are directly involved in spermatogenesis. They are also called "sustentacular cells" or "nurse cells".
• Microvilli are the finger like projections seen on the surface of some cells. The appearance of microvilli form what is also called the brush border or striated border.
• Pseudostratified epithelium lines the epididymis.
• Sertoli cells produce inhibin and androgen-binding protein. The interstitial cells of Leydig produce testosterone.
• Skene's glands are also called the lesser vestibular glands and are found in females.
• Stereocilia are very long microvilli. Stereocilia are seen in the epididymis and the hair cells of the ear.
• The acrosome is the "cap" at the anterior portion of a spermatozoon.
• The average testis in an adult man has between 400 and 600 seminiferous tubules.
• The bulbourethral glands are also called Cowper's glands. The bulbourethral glands are found in males and are homologous to the Bartholin's glands in females.
• The corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum are erectile tissue. There are two corpora cavernosa and one corpus spongiosum.
• The corpus spongiosum is also called the corpus cavernosum urethrae. The corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum are erectile tissue. The corpus cavernosum clitoridis is in the female. The urethra is a muscular tube that runs from the bladder. It transports both urine and semen.
• The earliest cells of spermatogenesis are spermatogonia; these are primitive cells. The primary spermatocyte is derived from spermatogonia. This then develops into secondary spermatocytes . The secondary spermatocyte is haploid. These develop into spermatids. The mature sperm cell is spermatozoa.
• The glandular epithelium of the prostate is most often simple columnar, however a variety of types can be found.
• The male genital duct system contains: rete testes, tubuli recti, ductuli efferentes, ductus epididymidis, and ductus deferens. The male accessory glands contain the bulbourethral glands, seminal vesicles, and prostate.
• The prostate gland is found in males.
• The prostate is the largest accessory structure of the male reproductive system.
• The testes develop in the abdominal cavity.  
• The tunica albuginea is the thick capsule around each testis.

5. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• A primordial follicle is a primary oocyte in the outer region of the cortex. It is  arrested in the first meiotic prophase. It is surrounded by flattened follicular  epithelial cells.
• During the first week to 10 days, FSH is the main hormone which stimulates the growth of the follicles. Ovulation is triggered by a dramatic increase in LH. During a pregnancy, HCG is the hormone which maintains the corpus luteum.
• The follicle which is ovulated is the Graffian follicle. The connective tissue layer around the primary follicle is the theca folliculi. The follicular cells are granulosa cells. The acidophilic glycoprotein coat surrounding the oocyte is the zona pellucida. A cavity within the follicle is the antrum.
• The mature follicle is also called the Graffian follicle.
• The ovary is covered with germinal epithelium. Underneath the germinal epithelium is connective tissue called the tunica albuginea. The outer region of the ovary is called the cortex. The inner region of the ovary is called the medulla. The ovarian follicle contains the oocyte.
• The ovary is covered with germinal epithelium. Underneath the germinal epithelium is connective tissue called the tunica albuginea. The outer region of the ovary is called the cortex. The inner region of the ovary is called the medulla. The ovarian follicle contains the oocyte.
• The term for the production of gametes is called gametogenesis. Gametogenesis in the female is referred to as oogenesis. The ovary is the organ where gametogenesis (oogenesis) occurs. Ovulation is the release of an oocyte and occurs every 28-30 days. The developing gametes are called oocytes. The mature gamete is an ova.
• The ovary is covered with germinal epithelium. Underneath the germinal epithelium is connective tissue called the tunica albuginea. The outer region of the ovary is called the cortex. The inner region of the ovary is called the medulla. The ovarian follicle contains the oocyte.
• The presence of the antrum is a characteristic of a secondary follicle. A follicle at this stage is also called an "antral follicle".
• The primary follicle is marked by the surrounding of flattened (squamous) follicular cells becoming cuboidal and the oocyte becomes bigger.

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